The Unequal Architecture of Digital Education: Gendered Access, Intersectional Exclusion, and the Reproduction of Social Inequality in India

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Authors

  • Mahera Imam Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India Author
  • Natesan Manimekalai Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India Author
  • S Suba Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India Author
DOI
https://doi.org/10.63960/sp.2026.sijmds.3.3.100

Keywords:

Digital Education, Digital Gender Divide, Intersectionality, Educational Inequality, Women’s Agency, NEP 2020

Abstract

The rapid digitalisation of education in India has expanded opportunities for flexible and remote learning, but it has also reproduced inequalities embedded in gender, caste, class and geography. Official data show the transition's differential material basis: In 2017-18, only 4.4% of rural households reported having computers and internet, compared with 23.4% and 42.0% in urban households, respectively (NSO, 2019). However, connectivity does not indicate whether women have access to devices, autonomy over their use, the capability to use the devices, time to learn, institutional support, or safety in online environments. This paper uses critical narrative review and theory-informed qualitative analysis of official surveys, institutional reports and policy documents, as well as interdisciplinary scholarship, to explore the unequal organisation of digital education in India. It brings together intersectionality, multidimensional digital-inequality scholarship, the capability approach and feminist approaches to technology to examine the way in which the conversion of technological resources into educational participation and benefit is mediated by social location and household power. The analysis also assesses the National Education Policy 2020 through the lenses of redistribution, recognition, representation, and capability conversion. It concludes that while the policy recognises the digital divide and its integration of technology, there is a lack of operational guidance to address intra-household inequalities, gendered control of technology, digital safety and overlapping forms of exclusion. Drawing on the structural learnings of the Towards Equality report, the paper argues that gender-equitable digital education is more than just technology provision. This requires redistributing digital resources, identifying differentiated disadvantage, enabling women to make choices, and including them in decision-making processes around the governance of educational technologies.

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Author Biographies

  • Mahera Imam, Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India

    Mahera Imam is a doctoral researcher at the Department of Women’s Studies, Bharathidasan University, supported by the ICSSR Central Doctoral Fellowship. Her research focuses on examining the intersections of technology, gender, labour, and structural violence in digital spaces. Her broader academic interests include feminist digital justice, data privacy, algorithmic bias, and intersectional governance. With multiple national and international publications, she actively engages in academic and policy dialogues on gendered digital harm and has contributed to workshops, fellowships, and conferences aimed at bridging research and grassroots advocacy. Mahera is committed to producing rigorous, intersectional, and policy-relevant scholarship that foregrounds the experiences and agency of marginalized women in the digital era.

    Competing Interests:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

  • Natesan Manimekalai, Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India

    Prof. N. Manimekalai is a former Professor and Head of the Department of Women’’s Studies, Bharathidasan University, Tamil Nadu. and a distinguished scholar and senior academic in the field of Women’s Studies, currently serving as the Director of the Centre for Women’’s Development Studies (CWDS), New Delhi. With decades of experience in research, teaching, and institutional leadership, she has played a pioneering role in shaping the academic landscape of gender studies in India. Her work spans across gender and development, feminist political economy, rural women’s empowerment, microfinance, and policy advocacy, with a strong focus on intersectionality and social justice. Prof. Manimekalai has led and collaborated on numerous research projects funded by national and international agencies, including the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), UN Women, and the Government of Tamil Nadu. A widely published scholar and respected mentor, she has supervised numerous PhD scholars and contributed significantly to building feminist research capacities in India. Known for her critical insights, grounded methodology, and commitment to transformative praxis, Prof. Manimekalai continues to be a leading voice in advancing inclusive, rights-based approaches to women’s empowerment and gender-sensitive governance.

    Competing Interests:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

  • S Suba, Department of Women’s Studies, Khajamalai Campus, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil-Nadu, India

    Prof. S. Suba is a Professor and Head of the Department of Women’’s Studies at Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, and a prominent figure in the field of gender and development studies in India. With extensive teaching, research, and field engagement experience, she has significantly contributed to feminist scholarship, especially in the areas of gender justice, social policy, and marginalities. Her academic work reflects a deep commitment to intersectional analysis, with a focus on how caste, class, gender, and regional disparities shape access to rights, resources, and representation. Prof. Suba has led and participated in several national and state-level research projects and has published widely in peer-reviewed journals, edited volumes, and policy platforms. As an experienced educator and research supervisor, she has mentored many doctoral scholars, encouraging them to pursue critical and socially responsive feminist research. She is also actively involved in curriculum development, capacity-building programs, and advocacy efforts that link academia with grassroots realities. Prof. S. Suba’s scholarly and institutional contributions continue to strengthen the visibility and relevance of Women’s Studies as a transformative and interdisciplinary academic field.

    Competing Interests:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

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Published

2026-09-10

Data Availability Statement

No new data were collected for the purposes of this study and no data were analysed independently. The paper draws upon a critical review of the literature including published research, official data, policy texts and institutional evaluations. The manuscript identifies and cites all sources used in the analysis.

Competing Interests

  • Mahera Imam:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

  • Natesan Manimekalai:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

  • S Suba:

    The authors have declared no competing interests. There are no competing financial or non-financial interests that could have influenced the research presented in this manuscript.

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Vol. 3 No. 3 (2026)

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Copyright (c) 2026 Mahera Imam, Natesan Manimekalai, S Suba (Author)

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How to Cite

Imam, M., Manimekalai, N., & Suba, S. (2026). The Unequal Architecture of Digital Education: Gendered Access, Intersectional Exclusion, and the Reproduction of Social Inequality in India. Synergy: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(3), 61-77. https://doi.org/10.63960/sp.2026.sijmds.3.3.100
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